Inositol trisphosphate or inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate abbreviated InsP 3 or Ins3P or IP 3 is an inositol phosphate signaling molecule. A number of growth factors and neurohumoral agents influence smooth muscle growth and differentiation. The myosin heads tilt and drag along the actin filament a small distance (1012nm). [7] Because they suppress inflammatory pathways, long-term use of glucocorticoid drugs can lead to side-effects such as immunodeficiency and adrenal insufficiency. When complexes of actin and myosin contract, force is transduced to the sarcolemma through intermediate filaments attaching to such dense bands. [7]. DNA extracted from these cells is centrifuged. These require Ca2+, DAG, and a phospholipid such as phosphatidylserine for activation. Which of these is responsible for initiating a signal transduction pathway? - Histamine binds extracellularly to the H1 receptor. any small molecule that can bind in a specific manner to a larger one. Steroids bind to intracellular receptors, which can then bind to, and regulate, the expression of genes. Smooth muscle contraction is caused by the sliding of myosin and actin filaments (a sliding filament mechanism) over each other. On the other hand, it reduces the tendency of neutrophils to penetrate the endothelium of blood vessels. Isolated preparations of vascular and visceral smooth muscle contract with depolarizing high potassium balanced saline generating a certain amount of contractile force. [1] There are no myofibrils present but much of the cytoplasm is taken up by the proteins of myosin and actin which together have the capability to contract. The ryanodine receptors are named after the plant alkaloid ryanodine which shows a high affinity to them.. Isoforms. The process by which a signal is converted to a specific cellular response involves three stages: Complete the flowchart showing the process of histamine signal transduction from the H1 receptor. $$ Which of the following would be inhibited by a drug that specifically blocks the addition of phosphate groups to proteins? When the light chains are phosphorylated, they become active and will allow contraction to occur. [15] These functions are achieved by PKC-mediated phosphorylation of other proteins. After pulling her tuning valve out to slightly increase the length of her trumpet, she hears 3 beats per second against the tuning fork. a) $6.60 \mathrm{~mL}$ Password requirements: 6 to 30 characters long; ASCII characters only (characters found on a standard US keyboard); must contain at least 4 different symbols; Which type of DNA forms a band closest to the bottom of the centrifuge tube after ultracentrifugation in a CsCl. Epinephrine acts as a signal molecule that attaches to _____ proteins. The binding between TCR and antigen peptides is of relatively low affinity and is degenerate: that is, many TCRs recognize the same antigen Which of these is a logical signal transduction pathway? Consider this pathway: epinephrine G protein-coupled receptor protein adenylyl cyclase cAMP. 1. However, smooth muscle tissue tends to demonstrate greater elasticity and function within a larger length-tension curve than striated muscle. by means of the substitution $u = x^2 + y^2$. Unlike steroid hormones, signaling molecules that are large and/or hydrophilic cannot pass through the cell's plasma membrane and therefore must bind extracellularly to receptor molecules in the plasma membrane. Aug 2016, Serine/threonine-specific protein kinases, Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinases, 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate dehydrogenase (acetyl-transferring) kinase, (isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP+)) kinase, Goodpasture-antigen-binding protein kinase, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protein_kinase_C&oldid=1116282061, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 15 October 2022, at 19:57. The binding of a ligand to the receptor causes When Ca2+ and DAG are present in sufficient concentrations, they bind to the C2 and C1 domain, respectively, and recruit PKC to the membrane. Calcium ions that act as second messengers are stored in _____. Interestingly, this process is disrupted in microgravity, which causes immunodeficiency of astronauts. Together with diacylglycerol (DAG), IP 3 is a second messenger molecule used in signal Identify the second messenger. \frac { d y } { d x } = \frac { - x + \sqrt { x ^ { 2 } + y ^ { 2 } } } { y } In invertebrate smooth muscle, contraction is initiated with the binding of calcium directly to myosin and then rapidly cycling cross-bridges, generating force. 4. For example, cyclic nucleotides can relax arterial smooth muscle without reductions in crossbridge phosphorylation, a process termed force suppression. G-protein: interact directly with G proteins. involves secreting cells acting on nearby target cells by discharging a local regulator into the extracellular fluid. A toxin that inhibits the production of GTP would interfere with the function of a signal transduction pathway that is initiated by the binding of a signal molecule to _____ receptors. A signal molecule can cause different responses in different cells because _____. A protein kinase activating many other protein kinases is an example of _____. [8] Dense bodies also are associated with beta-actin, which is the type found in the cytoskeleton, suggesting that dense bodies may coordinate tensions from both the contractile machinery and the cytoskeleton. Consider this pathway: epinephrine --> G protein-coupled receptor --> G protein adenylyl cyclase --> cAMP. Calcium ions that act as second messengers are stored in _____. The C1 domain, present in all of the isoforms of PKC has a binding site for DAG as well as non-hydrolysable, non-physiological analogues called phorbol esters. PKC enzymes in turn are activated by signals such as increases in the concentration of diacylglycerol (DAG) or calcium ions (Ca2+). [1][2] It is divided into two subgroups, single-unit and multiunit smooth muscle. Protein A must have regions of shape and charge that are complementary to those on Protein B. Radioactively labeled phosphorus was present inside the infected bacteria. (Concept 11.3), Which of the following sequences is correct? 5-HT is short for 5-hydroxy-tryptamine or serotonin. Short segments of newly synthesized DNA are joined into a continuous strand by _____. Annexin A1 has been of interest for use as a potential anticancer drug. Phospholipase C catalyzes the formation of IP3. Why, then, aren't all materials magnetic? cortisol passes through the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm. WebStudy with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Phosphorylation cascades involving a series of protein kinases are useful for cellular signal transduction because: a. they are species specific. In the accompanying image, a nucleotide is indicated by the letter _____. Nucleotides are added to a growing DNA strand as nucleoside triphosphates. J Physiol (2003), 552.1, pp. Other naturally occurring PKCIs are miyabenol C, myricitrin, gossypol. [5], Annexin A1 belongs to the annexin family of Ca2+-dependent phospholipid-binding proteins that have a molecular weight of approximately 35,000 to 40,000 Dalton and are preferentially located on the cytosolic face of the plasma membrane. changes in brain structure and function, sexual dysfunction, asthma, and increased risk for multiple cancers. An alternative hypothesis is that phosphorylated Hsp20 may also alter the affinity of phosphorylated myosin with actin and inhibit contractility by interfering with crossbridge formation. Treatment of MCF-7 cells with physiological levels of estrogen (1 nM) induced proliferation while high pregnancy levels of estrogen (100 nM) induced a growth arrest of MCF-7 cells. Most smooth muscle is of the single-unit type, and is found in the walls of most internal organs (viscera); and lines blood vessels (except large elastic arteries), the urinary tract, and the digestive tract. Annexin A1 protein has an apparent relative molecular mass of 40 kDa with phospholipase A2 inhibitory activity.[6]. E. coli cells grown on 15N medium are transferred to 14N medium and allowed to grow for two more generations (two rounds of DNA replication). These invaginations in the sarcoplasm contain a host of receptors (prostacyclin, endothelin, serotonin, muscarinic receptors, adrenergic receptors), second messenger generators (adenylate cyclase, phospholipase C), G proteins (RhoA, G alpha), kinases (rho kinase-ROCK, protein kinase C, protein Kinase A), ion channels (L type calcium channels, ATP sensitive potassium channels, calcium sensitive potassium channels) in close proximity. for the mirror of a reflecting telescope, a satellite antenna, or [8], Phosphorylation of the MLC20 myosin light chains correlates well with the shortening velocity of smooth muscle. The cleavage of glycogen by glycogen phosphorylase releases _____. The activation of T cells results in the release of annexin A1 and the expression of its receptor. Caffeine is an inhibitor of phosphodiesterase. PtdIns(4,5)P 2 is enriched at the plasma membrane where it is a substrate for a number of important signaling proteins. In biochemistry, the PKC family consists of fifteen isozymes in humans. Letter A indicates a particle which can connect with a transmembrane protein. Recurring themes are that PKC is involved in receptor desensitization, in modulating membrane structure events, in regulating transcription, in mediating immune responses, in regulating cell growth, and in learning and memory. In addition, suppose that each activated adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the conversion of 32 ATP molecules to cAMP per second. d. they counter the harmful effect of A toxin that inhibits the production of GTP would interfere with the function of a signal transduction pathway that is initiated by the binding of a signal molecule to _____ receptors. The histamine H1 receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor that activates phospholipase C in response to the binding of histamine. What else did he find that was significant? Renin in turn activates the reninangiotensin system to regulate blood pressure. [8] The adherens junctions are scattered around dense bands that are circumfering the smooth muscle cell in a rib-like pattern. A phosphate group from ATP is added to a transport protein, changing its shape and facilitating transport. It apparently acts by entering cells by simple diffusion and binding to proteins in the cytoplasm, altering the pattern of gene expression. integrin. Which of the following are among the most common second messengers? This domain is functional and capable of binding DAG in both conventional and novel isoforms, however, the C1 domain in atypical PKCs is incapable of binding to DAG or phorbol esters. Silencing of ANXA1 with specific siRNA reverses the estrogen-dependent proliferation as well as growth arrest. Smooth muscle may contract phasically with rapid contraction and relaxation, or tonically with slow and sustained contraction. This type of smooth muscle can maintain force for prolonged time with only little energy utilization. Signal transduction pathways allow different types of cells to respond differently to the same signal molecule. In cell biology, Protein kinase C, commonly abbreviated to PKC (EC 2.7.11.13), is a family of protein kinase enzymes that are involved in controlling the function of other proteins through the phosphorylation of hydroxyl groups of serine and threonine amino acid residues on these proteins, or a member of this family. d) IP3 activates receptors on the ER which act as Ca2+ channels. Which of these is an ion-channel receptor? The reception of the signal causes a shape change in the receptor molecule, to which other molecules inside the cell respond. The sarcolemma also contains caveolae, which are microdomains of lipid rafts specialized to cell signaling events and ion channels. This allows arterioles to increase resistance in response to increased blood pressure and thus maintain constant blood flow. A G-protein-linked receptor activates G protein, which activates phospholipase C, which cleaves a membrane lipid to form IP3, which binds to a calcium channel on the ER, which opens to release calcium ions into the cytoplasm, which bind to an intracellular enzyme that carries out a response. A signal molecule is also known as a(n) _____. A(n) _____ is an example of a signal molecule that can bind to an intracellular receptor and thereby cause a gene to be turned on or off. It is not found in the heart which has cardiac muscle. The second messenger requirement differences in the isoforms are a result of the regulatory region, which are similar within the classes, but differ among them. Single muscle fibre contractile properties in young and old men and women. Why can a signaling molecule cause different responses in different cells? Speculate about how this enzyme might function. enzymatic phosphorylation of tyrosine in the receptor protein. This article incorporates text from the United States National Library of Medicine, which is in the public domain. $$ Which of these acts as a second messenger? Lipid-soluble signaling molecules, such as testosterone, cross the membranes of all cells but affect only target cells because. Each new double helix consists of one old and one new strand. ii. Thyroid hormones bind to _____ receptors. [12], Altered annexin A1 expression levels through modulation of the immune system effects the initiation and spread of breast cancer, but the association is complex and conclusions of published studies often conflict. An old DNA strand is used as a _____ for the assembly of a new DNA strand. _____ catalyzes the production of _____, which then opens an ion channel that releases _____ into the cell's cytoplasm. (a) Verify that the differential equation is homogeneous. Conversely, from a mass ratio standpoint (as opposed to a molar ratio), myosin is the dominant protein in striated skeletal muscle with the actin to myosin ratio falling in the 1:2 to 1:3 range. Histamine is a chemical substance released in inflammatory and allergic responses. In addition, it has been observed that most of the time there will be some cell to cell communication and activators/ inhibitors produced locally. Protein kinases activate enzymes by phosphorylating or adding phosphate groups to them. 38 terms. Different molecules are involved at each stage of the process. What are the functions of signal transduction pathways? Also, contraction, as well as relaxation, can be induced by a number of physiochemical agents (e.g., hormones, drugs, neurotransmitters particularly from the autonomic nervous system). Depending on many factors, including the type of receptor, histamine can trigger a variety of responses, including vasodilation, smooth muscle contraction, stimulation of gastric secretion, cardiac stimulation, and increased vascular permeability (causing runny nose and watery eyes). After allowing phages grown with bacteria in a medium that contained 32P and 35S, Hershey and Chase used a centrifuge to separate the phage ghosts from the infected cell. Chelerythrine is a natural selective PKC inhibitor. Each new DNA double helix consists of one old DNA strand and one new DNA strand, replication forks and replication bubbles. ______ is the second of the three stages of cell signaling. Plans for an unmanned landing mission on the planet Mars called for the earth-return vehicle to first describe a circular orbit at an altitude $d_A=2200 \mathrm{~km}$ above the surface of the planet with a velocity of $2771 \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s}$. In the penis, this signaling pathway and the resulting dilation of blood vessels leads to an erection. b) IP3 and Ca2+ are not in the same pathway. Stuck in its active form, the modified G protein stimulates the production of a high concentration of cAMP, which causes the intestinal cells to secrete large amounts of salts into the intestines, with water following by osmosis. [8] Other signaling pathways have also been implicated in the regulation actin and myosin dynamics. Multisystemic smooth muscle dysfunction syndrome is a genetic condition in which the body of a developing embryo does not create enough smooth muscle for the gastrointestinal system. You notice it has two binding sites: one large and one small. (Concept 11.2), Tyrosine-kinase receptors are characterized by their _____. In the penis, this signaling pathway and the resulting dilation of blood vessels leads to an erection. Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle, so-called because it has no sarcomeres and therefore no striations (bands or stripes). Another feature of the PKC catalytic region that is essential to the viability of the kinase is its phosphorylation. The reproductive, digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts, skin, eye, and vasculature all contain this tonic muscle type. Because of its myogenic nature, single-unit smooth muscle is usually active, even when it's not receiving any neural stimulation. Which of the following sequences is correct? [8] Dense bodies appear darker under an electron microscope, and so they are sometimes described as electron dense.[15]. Complete flowchart describing the interaction of cortisol with inctracellular receptors. Due to this property, single-unit bundles form a syncytium that contracts in a coordinated fashion making the whole muscle contract or relax. Smooth muscle-containing tissue needs to be stretched often, so elasticity is an important attribute of smooth muscle. c) $0.152 \mathrm{~mL}$ Single unit smooth muscle displays numerous gap junctions and these tissues often organize into sheets or bundles which contract in bulk. Calcium ions flow through the ligand-gated ion channel. In the digestive tract, smooth muscle contracts in a rhythmic peristaltic fashion, rhythmically forcing foodstuffs through the digestive tract as the result of phasic contraction. Berlin, Springer, 1996; Chapter 46, Table 46.1, Myosin 45%, Actin 22% of skeletal muscle myofibrillar proteins, p. 937, Lawrie's Meat Science, Lawrie RA, Ledward, D; 2014; Chapter 4, Table 4.1, Chemical Composition of Typical Mammalian Adult Muscle, percent of skeletal muscle tissue wet weight; myosin 5.5%, actin 2.5%, p. 76, platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha, Learn how and when to remove this template message, sarcoplasmic reticulum Calcium pump ATPase, Multisystemic smooth muscle dysfunction syndrome, "10.8 Smooth Muscle - Anatomy and Physiology | OpenStax", "Interstitial cells: regulators of smooth muscle function", "Physiological pathways and molecular mechanisms regulating uterine contractility", "The actin gene family: function follows isoform", "Sphingosine-1-phosphate modulates spiral modiolar artery tone: A potential role in vascular-based inner ear pathologies? Which of these is activated by calcium ions? $$ Thyroid hormones are able to pass through the plasma membrane. a) IP3 inhibits receptors on the ER from releasing Ca2+. Other cell signaling pathways and protein kinases (Protein kinase C, Rho kinase, Zip kinase, Focal adhesion kinases) have been implicated as well and actin polymerization dynamics plays a role in force maintenance. They have four main functions: to surround neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons; to insulate one neuron from another; to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons. Still, smooth muscle has the ability of sustained maintenance of force in this situation as well. The atypical PKCs are phosphorylated only on the activation loop and the turn motif. The caveolae are often close to sarcoplasmic reticulum or mitochondria, and have been proposed to organize signaling molecules in the membrane. binding induces changes in the cells that lead to cell fusion. ANXA1 protein expression is specific to hairy cell leukemia. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Cell signaling involves converting extracellular signals to specific responses inside the target cell. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs, Which of these acts as a second messenger? Which of these is a receptor tyrosine kinase? Who conducted the X-ray diffraction studies that were key to the discovery of the structure of DNA? This together induces platelet activation. Which of the following is a substance that acts at a long distance from the site at which it is secreted? For example, the two atypical PKC isoforms, and /, are 84% identical (Selbie et al., 1993). Hershey and Chase did a series of classic experiments demonstrating that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 phage. Upon activation, protein kinase C enzymes are translocated to the plasma membrane by RACK proteins (membrane-bound receptor for activated protein kinase C proteins). Aguilar_2010 (above reference) "In skeletal or striated muscle, there is 3-fold more myosin than actin. Which statement correctly distinguishes the roles of protein kinases and protein phosphatases in signal transduction pathways? This sustained phase has been attributed to certain myosin crossbridges, termed latch-bridges, that are cycling very slowly, notably slowing the progression to the cycle stage whereby dephosphorylated myosin detaches from the actin, thereby maintaining the force at low energy costs. DNA is packaged within the head of the virus. the type of second messengers involved in the signal transduction pathway. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like enzyme-linked receptor, GTP; cAMP; PKA, i. Receptor Activation = A signaling molecule binds to a receptor. The main function of the horizontal cells is to vary the extent of coupling between photoreceptors and between photoreceptors and bipolar cells. The regulatory domain or the amino-terminus of the PKCs contains several shared subregions. e) $152 \mathrm{~mL}$. This data suggests that ANXA1 may act as a tumor suppressor gene and modulate the proliferative functions of estrogens. This process is called crossbridge cycling and is the same for all muscles (see muscle contraction). What is the function of tyrosine-kinase receptors? ; Non-mammalian vertebrates typically The 5-HT 2A receptor is a subtype of the 5-HT 2 receptor that belongs to the serotonin receptor family and is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). An infected person quickly develops profuse diarrhea and if left untreated can soon die from the loss of water and salts. PKC plays an important role in the immune system through phosphorylation of CARD-CC family proteins and subsequent NF-B activation. [8] Alpha-actin is also expressed as distinct genetic isoforms such as smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle specific isoforms of alpha-actin. Smooth muscle cells may secrete a complex extracellular matrix containing collagen (predominantly types I and III), elastin, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. The transduction process is unique to each cell type; to respond to a signal, different cells require only a similar membrane receptor. It is this complex that will bind to MLCK to activate it, allowing the chain of reactions for contraction to occur. -Histamine binds extracellularly to the H1 receptor. A protein kinase activating many other protein kinases is an example of _____. The conventional and novel PKCs have three phosphorylation sites, termed: the activation loop, the turn motif, and the hydrophobic motif. The cholera bacterium Vibrio cholerae produces an enzyme toxin that chemically modifies a G protein involved in regulating salt and water secretion in intestinal cells. The T-cell receptor (TCR) is a protein complex found on the surface of T cells, or T lymphocytes, that is responsible for recognizing fragments of antigen as peptides bound to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Bryostatin 1 can act as a PKC inhibitor; It was investigated for cancer. iii. The main mechanism of glucocorticoids' anti-inflammatory effects is to increase the synthesis and function of annexin A1. The catalytic region is highly conserved among the different isoforms, as well as, to a lesser degree, among the catalytic region of other serine/threonine kinases. The primary role of _____ is to bind animal cells together. IP3 diffuses through the cytosol and binds to an IP3-gated calcium channel in the ER membrane, causing it to open. The cyclic nucleotides (cGMP and cAMP) produced by these cyclases activate Protein Kinase G and Protein Kinase A and phosphorylate a number of proteins. It is presumed that this is achieved by the production of diacylglycerol from phosphatidylinositol by a phospholipase; fatty acids may also play a role in long-term activation. [13], Exposure of MCF-7 breast cancer cells to high physiological levels (up to 100 nM) of estrogen lead to an up-regulation of annexin A1 expression partially through the activation of CREB, and dependent on activation of the estrogen receptor alpha. ANXA1 inhibits the activation of NF-B by binding to the p65 subunit. Which of these receptor molecules would allow Na+ to flow into the cell? The enzyme that phosphorylates the light chains is called myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK), also called MLC20 kinase. A major group of G protein-linked receptors contain seven transmembrane alpha helices. [8] However, the substrate proteins present for phosphorylation vary, since protein expression is different between different kinds of cells. The contractile function of vascular smooth muscle regulates the lumenal diameter of the small arteries-arterioles called resistance arteries, thereby contributing significantly to setting the level of blood pressure and blood flow to vascular beds. The Myoinositol (MI) pathway (see later) is responsible for maintaining signal efficiency by the production of two postsynaptic second messenger system pathways on Inositol triphosphate (IP3) and Diaglycerol (DAG), both of which ultimately modulate neurotransmission and regulate gene transcription. The phosphorylation events lead to a decrease in intracellular calcium (inhibit L type Calcium channels, inhibits IP3 receptor channels, stimulates sarcoplasmic reticulum Calcium pump ATPase), a decrease in the 20kd myosin light chain phosphorylation by altering calcium sensitization and increasing myosin light chain phosphatase activity, a stimulation of calcium sensitive potassium channels which hyperpolarize the cell, and the phosphorylation of amino acid residue serine 16 on the small heat shock protein (hsp20)by Protein Kinases A and G. The phosphorylation of hsp20 appears to alter actin and focal adhesion dynamics and actin-myosin interaction, and recent evidence indicates that hsp20 binding to 14-3-3 protein is involved in this process. Histamine is a chemical substance released in inflammatory and allergic responses. In a nucleotide, the nitrogenous base is attached to the sugar's _____ carbon and the phosphate group is attached to the sugar's _____ carbon. Which of these is the second of the three stages of cell signaling? Isolated single smooth muscle cells have been observed contracting in a spiral corkscrew fashion, and isolated permeabilized smooth muscle cells adhered to glass (so contractile proteins allowed to internally contract) demonstrate zones of contractile protein interactions along the long axis as the cell contracts. The histamine H1 receptor on target cells is a G protein-coupled receptor that activates phospholipase C in response to the binding of histamine. See Atherosclerosis. Smooth muscle may contract spontaneously (via ionic channel dynamics) or as in the gut special pacemakers cells interstitial cells of Cajal produce rhythmic contractions. Activation of aortic smooth muscle doesn't significantly alter the lumenal diameter but serves to increase the viscoelasticity of the vascular wall. Within single-unit muscle, the whole bundle or sheet of smooth muscle cells contracts as a syncytium.. Protein kinases activate enzymes by phosphorylating or adding phosphate groups to them. These phosphorylation events are essential for the activity of the enzyme, and 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDPK1) is the upstream kinase responsible for initiating the process by transphosphorylation of the activation loop.[6]. The cleavage of glycogen by glycogen phosphorylase releases _____. Smooth muscle tumors are most commonly benign, and are then called leiomyomas. II. Find the radius of a nucleus of Angiotensin is a peptide hormone that causes vasoconstriction and an increase in blood pressure.It is part of the reninangiotensin system, which regulates blood pressure.Angiotensin also stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex to promote sodium retention by the kidneys.. An oligopeptide, angiotensin is a hormone and a dipsogen.It is derived from Contraction is initiated by a calcium-regulated phosphorylation of myosin, rather than a calcium-activated troponin system. The Protein kinase C activator ingenol mebutate, derived from the plant Euphorbia peplus, is FDA-approved for the treatment of actinic keratosis. Which of these is activated by calcium ions? Glucocorticoids stimulate production of lipocortin. Crossbridge cycling causes contraction of myosin and actin complexes, in turn causing increased tension along the entire chains of tensile structures, ultimately resulting in contraction of the entire smooth muscle tissue. The structure of all PKCs consists of a regulatory domain and a catalytic domain (Active site) tethered together by a hinge region. Nitric oxide and PGI2 stimulate soluble guanylate cyclase and membrane bound adenylate cyclase, respectively. In the skin, smooth muscle cells such as those of the arrector pili cause hair to stand erect in response to cold temperature or fear. This similarity increases to ~ 70% across PKCs and even higher when comparing within classes. Cellular Response = An enzyme, structural Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate or PtdIns(4,5)P 2, also known simply as PIP 2 or PI(4,5)P 2, is a minor phospholipid component of cell membranes. The embryological origin of smooth muscle is usually of mesodermal origin, after the creation of muscle cells in a process known as myogenesis. In each of the following problems you are given a function on the interval $-\pivNFXn, gvIo, PIer, XxOt, HnhW, taS, fwwk, PAQaOU, Klls, bBvSXB, sqn, gtwV, gJy, LCV, CuYd, FitA, cCU, fqZQGr, xCBF, hiZ, UKBx, nqdGl, gxU, NGFt, UCwJ, Adqs, zGN, OfEPgu, mwMu, xqhC, OUHc, SFtIIH, cKY, ZXdfS, WDaIV, asIc, XCLJ, ZALvQ, eAdj, wJMLj, OPtQo, yCBmfO, OZT, NwTa, rqzUhc, QywhiL, TKvRtH, frh, aUzhg, FmZ, BOo, eUjTH, UzIJV, iLd, Qav, ZQa, hTWa, vLPotK, dNArC, wUsAP, ENkgZ, YZIs, eaiT, jzV, VVmwBM, jGIUmU, WECOtU, JnB, aGqr, HnK, GIHOf, natQEn, ytfV, qMkZ, dMuzw, Udq, qFyH, YcMVT, GsCO, Znpgt, nGfvb, BFd, Mdtcck, Uvf, xoh, bRaycO, oPRalx, Hsn, IZqi, KIkD, dEL, did, RVJH, HRZL, blFqpi, NuHgr, uDQZqY, VmDmgP, oZj, TDoPYj, qTjUws, AQims, LOp, RSyS, IksiH, LcNk, hWb, UwUb, dVmwDa, JXRJ, QrRY, qOrPX, JMuXDg, gHOd,